(1) Field of the Invention
The present invention is in the field of chemical synthesis of stereoisomers and more particularly the exo-S-mecamylamine stereoisomer and the use of exo-S-mecamylamine in medical treatments.
(2) Description of Related Art
Mecamylamine (N,2,3,3-tetramethylbicyclo-[2.1.1]heptan-2-amine hydrochloride, 826-39-1) was developed and characterized by Merck & Co., Inc., as a ganglionic blocker with clinically significant hypotensive actions (Stone et al., J Med Pharm Chem 5(4):665-90, 1962). Unique characteristics of mecamylamine—including exceptional oral efficacy, rapid onset, long duration of action, and nearly complete absorption from the gastrointestinal tract—made mecamylamine at that time more desirable than the existing ganglionic blockers (Baer et al., Am J Physiol 186:180-6, 1956).
Despite mecamylamine's proven efficacy in the treatment of hypertension, its side effects resulting from broad parasympathetic inhibition led to its demise as a first line treatment for essential hypertension. Generalized ganglionic blockade may result in atony of the bladder and gastrointestinal tract impaired sexual function, cycloplegia, xerostomia, diminished perspiration and postural hypotension. Among mecamylamine side effects experienced at the antihypertensive dose of 25 mg/day were cardiovascular effects, hypothermia, tremors, anti-diuresis, antinociception, blurred vision, impotency, dysuria, tremor, choreiform movements, mental aberrations, nervousness, depression, anxiety, insomnia, slurred speech, weakness, fatigue, sedation, headache, constipation and renal insufficiency. Even at lower doses, such as 7.5 mg/day, some evidence for constipation has been reported. Minor increases in taste perversion (altered sense of taste), dizziness, insomnia and dyspepsia were noted. Mecamylamine continued to be used in special situations, such as hypertensive encephalopathy (Moser, 1969), hypertensive crises, and autonomic dysreflexia (Braddom and Johnson, 1969; Braddom and Rocco, 1991). Outside of a few laboratories and an occasional clinical study, sales of mecamylamine are rare.
In addition to its peripheral ganglionic blocking actions, mecamylamine crosses the blood brain barrier and functions as a selective nicotinic receptor antagonist at doses which do not have a significant effect on parasympathetic function (Banerjee et al., Biochem Pharmacol 40:2105-10, 1990; Martin et al., Med Chem Res 2:564-77, 1993). As a result, mecamylamine blocks most of the physiological, behavioral, and reinforcing effects of tobacco and nicotine (Martin et al., Biochem Pharmacol 38:3391-7, 1989). In studies of nicotine dependence, doses of 2.5 to 20 mg have been administered acutely to human subjects. For example, Rose et al. (1989) found that low doses of mecamylamine (2.5 to 10 mg), which were well tolerated, reduced the subjective effects of smoking in adult smokers.
In a recent double blind placebo-controlled study investigating the benefits of oral mecamylamine (5 mg/day b.i.d.) in adults for smoking cessation treatment, there was no significant increase over controls in adverse effects reported with mecamylamine treatment for most symptoms, including blurred vision, dizziness when standing, dry mouth, weakness, abdominal pains, or difficult urination. The most prevalent symptom with the mecamylamine treatment was mild constipation; at some point during the five weeks of mecamylamine treatment, 70% of the subjects reported that symptom versus 32% in the placebo group (Rose et al., 1994). Mecamylamine also has been reported to alter cognitive functioning (Newhouse P A et al, Neuropsychopharmacology 10:93-107, 1994), electrical brain waves (Pickworth W B, Herning R I, Henningfield J E, Pharmacology Biochemistry & Behavior 30:149-153, 1988) and cortical blood flow (Gitalman D R, Prohovnik I, Neurobiology of Aging 13:313-318, 1992).
While most animal studies used more than 0.5 mg/kg, Driscoll found that a small dose of only mecamylamine (<0.3 mg/kg, not 0.5 mg/kg) to high-avoidance rats increased their avoidance success almost as much as 0.1 mg/kg nicotine (but less than 0.2 mg/kg nicotine). Based on his experiments, Driscoll concluded: “mecamylamine may exert unpredictable effects on rats at the dosage levels used to block nicotine in behavioral tests” (Driscoll P., Psychopharmacologia (Berl.) 46:119-21, 1976).
Many organic compounds exist in optically active forms, i.e., they have the ability to rotate the plane of polarized light. In describing an optically active compound, the prefixes R and S are used to denote the absolute configuration of the molecule about its chiral center(s). The prefixes (+) and (−) or d and l are employed to designate the sign of rotation of polarized light by the compound, with (−) and l meaning that the compound is levorotatory. A compound prefixed with (+) and d is dextrorotatory. For a given chemical structure, these compounds, called stereoisomers, are identical except that they are mirror images of one another. A specific stereoisomer may also be referred to as an enantiomer, and a mixture of such isomers is often called an enantiomeric or racemic mixture.
Stereochemical purity is of importance in the field of pharmaceuticals, where 12 of the 20 most prescribed drugs are optically active. One example is the l-form of propranolol, which is about 100 times more potent than the d-form. Optical purity is important since certain isomers may be deleterious rather than simply inert. Another example is d-thalidomide that appears to be a safe and effective sedative for controlling morning sickness during pregnancy; whereas, l-thalidomide is thought to be a potent teratogen.
Mecamylamine has been marketed as a racemic mixture comprising the optical isomers exo-S-mecamylamine and exo-R-mecamylamine hydrochloride. Previous studies aimed at investigating the pharmacology of these two isomers have generally found little or no difference in potency or efficacy. For example, Stone et al. (1962) compared the effects of (+)-mecamylamine hydrochloride with racemic mecamylamine hydrochloride on nicotine-induced convulsions and pupil dilation and found essentially no significant differences between the two compounds and concluded that “optical isomerism does not play a significant role in determining the degree of activity.” (Stone, supra, p.675). Schonenberger et al. (Helv Chim Acta 69:283-7, 1986) reported “interesting differences” in the actions of d- and l-mecamylamine hydrochloride in assays measuring neuromuscular transmission. However, they provided no details on the differences.
In U.S. Pat. No. 5,039,801, Brossi and Schonenberger disclosed that “the antipodes (−)- and (+)-mecamylamine were obtained here from the corresponding methylbenzylureas in 40% yield each and were of high optical purity (95%, HPLC), affording hydrochloride salts which were optically pure after one crystallization.” (col. 3, lines 32-37). However, in disclosing their experimental findings, they mention that the “etheral extract of the concentrated, acidified reaction mixture was concentrated and the residue distilled (Kugel, 180°, 20 torr) to give 6.08 g (96%) (−)-12 as a tlc. pure colorless liquid which turned to a waxy solid on standing in cold: [α]D=77.0° (c+2.6 in benzene) lit. (+)-12: [α]D=+80.1° (c=3 in benzene). The combined org extracts from the alkaline aqueous phase were concentrated, the resulting liquid was mixed with 20 ml Et2O and crude hydrochloride (+)-1.HCl was precipitated by addition of a slight excess of HCl in Et2O. After filtration, the finely powdered colorless solid was recrystallized from 2-propanol to give 1.02 g (64%) (+)-1.HCl as needles [α]D+20.1° (c+1.7 in CHCl3). The more polar urea 3 (1.85 g, 5.89 mmol) was treated in exactly the same manner to give 752 mg (63% (−)-1.HCl as colorless needles: [α]D−20.0° (c=2.2 in CHCl3).” Col. 6, lines 20-37. However, no in vitro or in vivo data were disclosed.
Suchocki et al. (J Med Chem 34:1003-10, 1991) investigated the actions of d- and l-mecamylamine hydrochloride in assays measuring nicotine-induced depression of spontaneous locomotor activity and antinociception. They found that both optical isomers had similar potency in blocking the antinociception caused by nicotine; whereas, the potency of the (+)-mecamylamine isomer in blocking the nicotine-induced depression of spontaneous locomotor activity was unable to be determined due to an experimental confound.
Tourette's Syndrome (TS) is an autosomal dominant neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by a range of symptoms, including multiple motor and phonic tics. It is a hyperkinetic movement disorder expressed largely by sudden, rapid, brief, recurrent, nonrhythmic, stereotyped motor movements (motor tics) or sounds (phonic tics), experienced as irresistible impulses but which can be suppressed for varying lengths of time (Tourette Syndrome Classification Study Group, Arch Neurol 50:1013-16). Motor tics generally include eye blinking, head jerking, shoulder shrugging and facial grimacing, while phonic or vocal tics include throat clearing, sniffling, yelping, tongue clicking and coprolalia. The symptoms typically begin in childhood and range from relatively mild to very severe over the course of a patient's lifetime (Robertson M M, Br J Psychiatry, 154:147-169, 1989). Many TS patients also exhibit other neuropsychiatric abnormalities including obsessive compulsive symptoms (Pauls D L et al. Psychopharm Bull, 22:730-733, 1986), hyperactivity and attention deficit (Comings Del., Himes J A, Comings B G, J Clin Psychiatry, 51:463-469, 1990). Problems with extreme temper or aggressive behavior also are frequent (Riddle Mass. et al. Wiley Series in Child and Adolescent Mental Health, Eds. Cohen D J, Bruun, R D, Leckman J F, New York City, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 151-162, 1988; Stelf M E, Bornstein R A, Hammond L, A survey of Tourette Syndrome patients and their families: the 1987 Ohio Tourette Survey, Cincinnati, Ohio Tourette Syndrome Association, 1988), as are school refusal and learning disabilities (Harris D, Silver A A, Learning Disabilities, 6(1): 1-7, 1995; Silver A A, Hagin R A, Disorders of Learning Childhood, Noshpitz J D, ed. New York City: Wiley, pp. 469-508, 1990).
While the pathogenesis of TS is still unknown, excessive striatal dopamine and/or dopamine receptor hypersensitivity has been proposed (Singer H S et al. Ann Neurol, 12:361-366, 1982), based largely on the therapeutic effectiveness of dopamine receptor antagonists. TS is frequently treated with the dopamine antagonist haloperidol (Haldol®, Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, Raritan, N.J.), which is effective in about 70% of cases (Erenberg G, Cruse R P, Rothner, A D, Ann Neurol, 22:383-385, 1987; Shapiro A K, Shapiro E, Wiley series in child and adolescent mental health, Eds. Cohen D J, Bruun R D, Leckman J F, New York City, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 267-280, 1988). Other neuroleptics include pimozide (Shapiro E S et al. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 46:722-730, 1989), fluphenazine (Singer H S, Gammon K, Quaskey S. Pediat Neuroscience, 12:71-74, 1985-1986), and risperidone (Stamenkovic et al., Lancet 344:1577-78, 1994). The α-adrenergic agonist clonidine, which also is effective for associated attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), has only a 40% success rate for motor and vocal tics (Brunn R D, J Am Acad Child Psychiatry, 23:126-133, 1984; Cohen D J et al. Arch Gen Psychiatry 37:1350-1357, 1980). Other medications with varying degrees of effectiveness include clonazepam (Gonce M, Barbeau A. Can J Neurol Sci 4:279-283, 1977), naloxone (Davidson P W et al. Appl Res Ment Retardation 4:1-4, 1983) and fluoxetine (Riddle M A et al. J Am Acad Child Adol Psychiatry 29:45-48, 1990). A commonly used medication is haloperidol (Erenberg G, Cruse R P, Rothner A D, Ann Neurol, 22:383-385, 1987). However, therapeutic doses of haloperidol frequently cause difficulty in concentration, drowsiness, depression, weight gain, parkinsonian-like symptoms—and with long-term use—tardive dyskenesia (Shapiro A K, Shapiro E, Tourette's Syndrome and Tic Disorders: Clinical Understanding and Treatment. Wiley series in child and adolescent mental health. Eds. Cohen, D J, Bruun, R D, Leckman J F, New York City, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 267-298, 1988). The side effect of tardive dyskinesia is particularly bothersome because it may add additional abnormal, involuntary movements of the tongue, jaw, trunk and/or extremities.
Erenberg et al. (Erenberg G, Cruse R P, Rothner A D, Ann Neurol 22:383-385, 1987) found that most patients with TS stop using their haloperidol or other neuroleptic medications by age 16, often because of side effects. After TS patients quit medication, they have less control over speech and movement, which disqualify many for full-time, responsible jobs. The public, including law enforcement officers, often identify the symptoms as intoxication. Unexpected movements and coprolalia cause great social difficulties.
It has been observed that 50% of children presenting with TS also have Attention Deficit Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is a neurobiological disorder characterized by impaired attentiveness, increased impulsivity, and hyperactivity. ADHD is now the most commonly diagnosed childhood psychiatric condition, with some 3.5 million afflicted. In addition, 60% of adolescents with ADHD continue to have symptoms in adulthood, representing another 2.5 million patients.
Many neuropsychiatric disorders involve abnormal or involuntary movements including but not limited to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), TS, ADHD, hemidystonia, and chorea, such as Huntington's chorea. These diseases may be caused by neurochemical imbalances in the brain's basal ganglia. Acetylcholine, by activating nAChrs in the basal ganglia, regulates motor activity in humans (Clarke PBS, Pert A, Brain Res 348:355-358, 1985). Nicotinic stimulation excites activity in the dopamine (DA)-producing cells in the basal ganglia (Clarke PBS et al, J Pharmacol Exper Therapeutics 246:701-708, 1988; Grenhoff J, Aston-Jones G, Svennson T H, Acta Physiol Scand 128:351-358, 1986; Imperato A, Mulas A, Di Chiara G, Eur J Pharmacol 132:337-338, 1986), while mecamylamine blocks nAChr and inhibits DA release from basal ganglia structures (Ahtee L, Kaakkola S, Br J Pharmacol 62:213-218, 1978).
U.S. Pat. No. 5,574,052 to Rose and Levin discloses agonist-antagonist combinations to reduce the use of nicotine and other drugs. In combination with nicotine, the nicotinic antagonist mecamylamine was given to treat tobacco dependency. Rose and Levin proposed including both nicotine and mecamylamine in a patch. Rose and Levin also suggested that such agonist-antagonist combinations could be used in other psychopathological disorders and cases involving neuronal dysfunction (e.g., manic depression, schizophrenia and hypertension due to sympathetic autonomic disorder).
It would benefit patients to be able to have better symptom control and fewer side effects. Our clinical experience with mecamylamine racemate in human patients with a variety of disorders supports a variety of uses. Herein is disclosed improved symptom control with isomer exo-S-mecamylamine for the treatment of a variety of nicotine-responsive neuropsychiatric disorders.